IV. COMMONWEALTH COUNTRIES OPPOSING THE BAN TREATY
Bangladesh does not produce or export mines, but maintains a stockpile
of antipersonnel landmines and insists on the right to use them, citing
security considerations. There are uncleared landmines along the Burma/Myanmar
border. The Bangladesh army has several battalions with mine clearing capability.
They have cleared landmines on international peacekeeping operations, including
in Kuwait and in Cambodia.
Although Bangladesh co-sponsored UNGA Resolution 51/45 S, it did not endorse
the Brussels Declaration and attended the Oslo negotiations only as an
observer.
There is a problem of uncleared landmines from the 1974 hostilities on the island. Both the Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot forces consider the minefields under their control as integral to their defense. There are 132 confirmed minefields on the island but there are likely to be other undeclared sites.(1)
Most mines found in Cyprus are of U.S. origin, such as the M-16A2. Most of these mines are deployed in mixed anti-personnel/anti-tank configurations of six to twenty mines each and located in or near the buffer zone which separates Greek Cypriot and Turkish forces, and along North-South roads. There have also been some post-1974 minefields laid around strategic installations. Some are clearly marked, while others are not. There have been civilian casualties.(2) A U.N. initiative to use Canadian engineers for demining in 1992 failed because the Cypriot communities failed to reach agreement.
The U.S. government has identified Cyprus as a producer of antipersonnel landmines, though the government of Cyprus denies it. Cyprus was a co-sponsor of UNGA Resolution 51/45S, but did not endorse the Brussels declaration and did not attend the Oslo negotiations.
There is a problem of uncleared landmines along the India/Pakistan border in Kashmir and along the India/China border. India produces two U.S.-designed antipersonnel mines (M-14 and M16A1). Although India is not known to have exported mines, it declared a moratorium on antipersonnel landmine exports on March 5, 1996. India states that it supports the use of antipersonnel landmines for self-defense in demarcated fields and along international borders. India favors a ban on randomly deployed mines and on the use of antipersonnel landmines in internal conflicts. India announced in October 1996 that it would continue to produce antipersonnel landmines for domestic use, and has no plans to destroy existing stockpiles. It did, however, vote "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45. India did not endorse the Brussels declaration and attended the Oslo negotiations only as an observer.
There is not a significant problem of uncleared landmines, but there are numbers of antipersonnel landmines along its disputed border with India in Kashmir. Pakistan is a producer of antipersonnel landmines. Pakistan's state-owned Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF) earned a reputation as one of the most enthusiastic promoters of antipersonnel landmines and a wide range of other ordnance, munitions and small arms products. Sales literature for the firm's low cost (unit price $6.75) P4 Mk.2 stresses the careful calculation of the explosive charge to "make the man disabled and incapacitate him permanently" because "operating research has shown that it is better to disable the enemy than kill him."(3) Pakistan produces six types of antipersonnel landmines, the: P2 Mk2; P3 Mk2; P4 Mk1; P5 Mk1; P5 Mk2 and the P7 Mk1.(4)
According to one expert, Pakistan appears to have been the largest supplier, by a wide margin, of mines deployed in Somaliland, but relatively little is currently known about the other customers.(5) Pakistani mines have also been found in Afghanistan, Eritrea and Ethiopia.
On March 18, 1997 Pakistan declared a unilateral moratorium on its exports of antipersonnel landmines. It is currently converting all mines in its stockpile to detectible ones, as prescribed under Protocol II of the Convention on Conventional Weapons.
Pakistan maintains that antipersonnel landmines are important as a defensive weapon. It opposes a global ban unless "viable alternatives" are developed. Pakistan was one of ten nations to abstain on UNGA Resolution 51/45. It did not endorse the Brussels declaration and attended the Oslo negotiations only as an observer.
Singapore, like Pakistan, is one of the major antipersonnel landmine producers in the developing world. Singapore's landmines are produced by Chartered Industries of Singapore (CIS), one of four groups of defense firms controlled by the state-owned Sheng-Li Holding Company, and through Sheng-Li by the Singapore Ministry of Defense. Sheng-Li's military subsidiaries have grown from a single plant opened in 1967 to a complex network of production, service and marketing companies.(6) CIS sales arm, Unicorn International, maintains offices in London, Dubai and Brunei.(7) They produce and market two antipersonnel mines originated by Italy's Valsella. Press reports identified Singapore as one of the conduits for sales of Valsella-designed mines to Iraq and a partly-declassified U.S. Army Intelligence study confirms that the Singapore-made mines were found in Iraqi arsenals.(8) Singapore produces the SPM-1 (like the Italian VS-50) and the Valmara 69.(9)
In May 1996 Singapore declared a two-year limited moratorium on exports of non-self destruct and non-detectable antipersonnel mines. However, it has maintained that antipersonnel landmines are needed for "legitimate self-defense." Singapore voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S, but did not endorse the Brussels declaration and attended the Oslo negotiations only as an observer.
Both the government and separatist Tamil Tigers have used mines during this decade and a half-long insurgency, particularly in the northern and eastern regions. The separatists mine routes used by government troops. The separatists use mines captured from government forces and also manufacture their own improvised version, known as a Johnny-mine.(10)
Sri Lanka voted 'Yes' on UNGA Resolution, but did not endorse the Brussels declaration and attended the Oslo negotiations only as an observer.
Australia(11) (Canberra)
Australia has not produced or exported antipersonnel landmines, but maintains a stockpile. On April 15, 1996 it declared a unilateral indefinite suspension on operational use of antipersonnel landmines (only to be reviewed in event of exceptional circumstances involving a "substantial deterioration in strategic situation"). Stockpiles will be kept for training and research into landmine clearance.
Australia voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/4, endorsed the Brussels Declaration, and participated in the Oslo negotiations. However, at the end of the negotiations, it stated that it was uncertain whether it would sign the treaty. Australia has promoted the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in Geneva as the proper forum for a ban, rather than the Ottawa Process. The ICBL has criticized Australia for this stance because the CD is likely to take many years, if not decades, to reach agreement on a mine ban.
Brunei Darussalam (Bandar Seri Begawan)
Brunei does not have a landmine problem. It is not known whether its armed forces maintain a stockpile of landmines. Brunei voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45, but did not endorse the Brussels declaration and attended the Oslo negotiations only as an observer.
There is no known landmine problem. Gambia voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S, but did not endorse the Brussels declaration or attend the Oslo negotiations. Its attorney general, Haw Sisal-Scybala told Human Rights Watch in September 1997 that there was no reason for this other than being forgotten and that she thought Gambia would sign if pressed.(12)
There is no current landmine problem although there have been media reports of a few landmine incidents in Turkana region. Kenya maintains antipersonnel landmine stockpiles and has used antipersonnel mines in the past along the Somali border in North Eastern Province.(13) Kenya voted 'Yes' on UNGA Resolution 51/45S, but did not endorse the Brussels Declaration. Nevertheless, Kenya attended the Oslo negotiations as a full participant. There continues to be uncertainty about whether Kenya will actually sign the treaty in December.
There are no reports that Kiribati has a landmine problem or possesses antipersonnel mines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S but has not participated in the Ottawa process.
There are no reports that Maldives has a landmine problem or possesses antipersonnel mines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S but has not participated in the Ottawa process.
There are no reports that Nauru has a landmine problem or possesses antipersonnel mines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S but has not participated in the Ottawa process.
There are no reports that Samoa has a landmine problem or possesses antipersonnel mines. It voted Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S but has not participated in the Ottawa process.
There are no reports that the Solomon Islands has a landmine problem or possesses antipersonnel mines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S. During the Australia NGO Forum in August 1997 it announced full support for the Ottawa process, but has not attended any of the diplomatic conferences.
There are no reports that Tonga has a landmine problem or possesses antipersonnel mines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S but has not participated in the Ottawa process.
There are no reports that Tuvalu has a landmine problem or possesses antipersonnel mines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S but has not participated in the Ottawa process.
There are no reports that Vanuatu has a landmine problem or possesses antipersonnel mines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S. It announced full support for the Ottawa process at the Australia NGO Forum in August, but has not participated in the diplomatic meetings.
VI. COUNTRIES SUSPENDED FROM THE COMMONWEALTH(14)
Rebel forces in the east and south have used a small number of landmines along roads. Of the thirty-seven landmine-related deaths in 1993, three were civilians. There has been an average of three to four landmine incidents every month. In 1997 following the coup, the Nigerian military has been responsible for laying new minefields, resulting in some civilian casualties. The Nigerian press also reported in September that the military had intensified laying of landmines around and particularly on the passage routes of ECOMOG troops and that there had been civilian landmine casualties.(15) On May 6, 1997 a local NGO Sierra Leone Campaign to Ban Landmines was launched, but it lasted only a few weeks because of the coup.
Sierra Leone was a co-sponsor of UNGA Resolution 51/45S. It committed itself to support the Ottawa Process on May 21, 1997, just prior to the coup. Foreign Minister Shirley Gbujuma told Human Rights Watch that the government in exile would sign in Ottawa.(16)
Nigeria claims to have had landmine incidents in the past (from the Biafra war) but to have eradicated their problem. Nigerian soldiers have used landmines in Liberia and Sierra Leone, and Nigeria is known to maintain a significant stockpile of landmines, including French MIAPID48 antipersonnel mines and British Ranger mines.(17)
Nigeria voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S but did not endorse the Brussels Declaration and did not attend the Oslo negotiations.
The research and writing for this report was done by Alex Vines, research associate at the Human Rights Watch Arms Project. Andrew Cooper, research assistant at the Arms Project, also contributed. The report was edited by Stephen Goose, program director of the Arms Project. Canada's Non-Proliferation, Arms Control and Disarmament Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Ottawa helpfully provided information.
The Arms Project acknowledges with appreciation funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, the Ploughshares Fund, the John Merck Fund, and Radda Barnen (Swedish Save the Children).
1. U.S. Department of State, Hidden Killers. The Global Problem with Uncleared Landmines, 1993, p.78.
3. Pakistan Ordnance Factories, Technical Specifications for Mine Anti-personnel (P4 Mk2).
4. According to U.S. Department of Defense Mine Facts CD-Rom Database; Jane's Military Vehicles and Logistics: 1995-96.
5. Interview, Maurice Brackenreed-Johnston, Rimfire International Ltd., April 8, 1993.
6. Bilveer Singh and Kwa Guan, "The Singapore Defense Industries: Motivations, Organization and Impact," in Chandran Jeshurun (ed.), Arms and Defense in Southeast Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989) pp.96-124.
7. Company Profile (undated) for Unicorn International and Chartered Industries of Singapore.
8. U.S. Army Intelligence Agency - U.S. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center, Operation Desert Shield Special Report: Iraqi Engineer Capabilities, 1990. This document was provided to the Arms Project by Greenpeace, which obtained it under the Freedom of Information Act.
9. U.S. Department of Defense Mine Facts CD-ROM Database.
10. U.S. Department of State, Hidden Killers, p.154.
11. External Territories: Norfolk Island, Coral Sea Islands Territory, Australian Antarctic Territory, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands.
12. Human Rights Watch interview, September 11, 1997.
13. Information provided by the Kenyan Campaign to Ban Landmines, September 1997.
14. Commonwealth Heads of Government suspended Nigeria's membership at their New Zealand summit in 1995. Sierra Leone was suspended on July 11, 1997 following a military coup in Freetown.
15. The Guardian (Lagos) September 5, 1997.
16. Human Rights Watch interview, September 11, 1997.
17. Alex Vines, "The Killing Fields. Landmines in North, West and Central Africa," African Topics (London), no.18, June 1997.