III. COMMONWEALTH COUNTRIES SUPPORTING THE BAN TREATY
Antigua and Barbuda
(St John's)
Antigua and Barbuda has never possessed landmines. It voted "Yes"
on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed
the Brussels Declaration and participated in the Oslo negotiations as the
CARICOM representative. It is expected to sign the ban treaty in December.
Bahamas (Nassau)
The Bahamas has never possessed landmines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45 and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, but did not participate in the Oslo negotiations. Nevertheless, it is expected to sign the ban treaty in December.
Barbados has never possessed landmines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration and participated in the Oslo negotiations. It is expected to sign the ban treaty in December.
Belize has never possessed landmines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45 and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, but did not participate in the Oslo negotiations. Nevertheless, it is expected to sign the ban treaty in December.
During the Rhodesian war landmines were planted in northern Botswana. No known incidents have occurred since 1980 and all the mines reportedly have been cleared. Botswana is not known to have produced or exported mines, but may maintain a stockpile of antipersonnel landmines. Botswana was a co-sponsor of UNGA Resolution 51/45 S and voted "Yes." It endorsed the Brussels Declaration and participated in the Oslo negotiations. It is expected to sign the treaty in December.
There is no known problem of uncleared landmines in Cameroon. Cameroon claims not to have used antipersonnel landmines and to have no stocks. It was a UNGA 51/45 S co-sponsor and voted "Yes." It endorsed the Brussels Declaration and participated in the Oslo negotiations. It is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Canada has been the key government in bringing about a global ban on antipersonnel landmines. (See above on the Ottawa Process.) In the past, Canada produced one type of antipersonnel landmine, the C3A1 (Elsie) by SNC Industrial Technologies Inc., which has been found in Iraq, the U.K. and other countries. In January 1996, Canada announced a comprehensive moratorium on the production, trade and use of antipersonnel mines. In October 1996, at the time of its international ban conference, Canada destroyed two-thirds of its stockpile of mines, and intends to destroy the rest by the end of this year. Canada introduced UNGA Resolution 51/45 S with the U.S. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, participated in the Oslo negotiations and has said it will sign the treaty in December.
Dominica has never possessed antipersonnel landmines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration,and although it did not participate in the Oslo negotiations, it is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Fiji(1) (Suva)
Fiji has never possessed landmines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45 and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, but did not participate in the Oslo negotiations. Nevertheless, it is expected to sign the ban treaty in December.
There is no problem of uncleared landmines in Ghana. The government claims that its armed forces do not use or stockpile antipersonnel landmines. Ghana is not believed to have produced or exported antipersonnel landmines. It was a co-sponsor of UNGA Resolution 51/45 S and voted "Yes." Ghana endorsed the Brussels Declaration and participated in the Oslo negotiations. It is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Grenada reports that it has never produced antipersonnel landmines and has no stockpiles. Grenada voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, but did not participate in the Oslo negotiations. Nevertheless, it is expected to sign the ban treaty in December.
There is no known landmine problem in Guyana. Guyana is not believed to have produced or exported mines, but it is unknown whether it maintains a stockpile of mines. Guyana voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45 S,and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, but did not participate in the Oslo negotiations. Nevertheless, it is expected to sign the ban treaty in December.
Jamaica has never possessed antipersonnel landmines. Jamaica was a co-sponsor of UNGA Resolution 51/45S and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, but did not participate in the Oslo negotiations. Nevertheless, it is expected to sign the ban treaty in December.
There have been no reports of a problem with uncleared landmines. Lesotho states that it does not maintain a stockpile of landmines. Lesotho co-sponsored UNGA Resolution 51/45S and supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration and participated in the Oslo negotiations. It is expected to sign the treaty in December.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Malawian troops used landmines to protect the Nacala railway corridor inside Mozambique from attack by Renamo rebels. Many of the mines were supplied by the United States. Malawi also has a problem with mines along its side of the Mozambique border, though landmine incidents are infrequent. Malawi first expressed its support for a ban at the 4th International NGO Conference on Landmines, held in Maputo, Mozambique in February 1997. A Malawi official stated that Malawi "condemn(s) the manufacture, export, import, use and stockpiling of any type of mines." He said, "Malawi is now working on draft legislation to join the world community to ban landmines subject to approval by Parliament; and Civil Society is committed to campaign for the ban and eradication of landmines in the world."(2)
Malawi was a co-sponsor of UNGA Resolution 51/45S. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, but did not participate in the Oslo negotiations. Nevertheless, it is expected to sign the ban treaty in December.
There is a problem of uncleared mines from the long guerrilla insurgency mounted by the Communist Party of Malaysia. The areas which still have a problem are in mountainous and remote terrain, especially along the Malaysia/Thailand border. Malaysia does not produce or export mines, but it is not known whether it maintains a stockpile of landmines.
Malaysia was the first Commonwealth nation to express support for an immediate ban on antipersonnel mines, in remarks the U.N. General Assembly in December 1994. Malaysia voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. Malaysia participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Malta does not produce or export antipersonnel mines, but it is not known whether there are stockpiles. Malta announced its support for a global ban in May 1996. It cosponsored UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Mauritius does not possess antipersonnel landmines. It co-sponsored UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Landmines were used extensively by all sides in the decades-long fighting in Mozambique. Mines have claimed some 10,000 victims and continue to do so on a daily basis. More than 1,000 people have been injured by mines since the October 1992 peace accord. Landmines constitute one of the most immediate obstacles to postwar redevelopment, and hinder delivery of relief aid, resettlement, and agricultural and commercial reconstruction.(3)
Human Rights Watch believes the frequently cited U.N. estimate of two million mines in Mozambique is too high, with the real total in the hundreds, or even tens, of thousands. But the number of mines is not the measure of the problem. Mozambique clearly has a serious problem that threatens civilians daily and is curtailing economic reconstruction.
A limited number of landmines continued to be planted since the peace accord, mostly by bandit groups, criminals and poachers. Nearly forty types of antipersonnel mines from more than one dozen nations have been reported in Mozambique. However, mine clearance efforts have been plagued with delays and controversy.
President Chissano announced in October 1995 that Mozambique was prepared to head an international campaign against antipersonnel mines, but little concrete action was taken for the next year and a half as the Mozambican military wanted to retain the option of using landmines. However, as the 4th International NGO Conference on Landmines (held in Maputo February 25-28, 1997) approached, greatly increased attention to the issue domestically, regionally and internationally spurred a policy decision. On February 26, Mozambique's foreign minister addressed the NGO Conference and announced an immediate ban on the use, production, import and export of antipersonnel mines. Destruction of Mozambique's stockpile was not addressed.
Mozambique co-sponsored UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
The South African Defense Force (SADF) used mines in northern Namibia during its occupation of Namibia, primarily in fenced and marked areas around military encampments and installations, but also along power lines. The landmines that the SADF planted in northern Namibia were not properly cleared when South African forces withdrew just prior to independence in 1990. These mines continue to injure people and livestock and to disrupt civilian life. A limited number of mines have been planted in Namibia since independence, perhaps most notably by poachers.(4)
A U.S. Department of Defense database indicates that Namibia has produced wooden PMD-6 mines, but Namibian officials deny this claim. Twenty-seven types of antipersonnel mines from nine other countries have been reported in Namibia. The condition of some of Namibia's stockpile of mines is suspect; Human Rights Watch has obtained copies of two confidential documents indicating that the arsenal at Grootfontein Military Base is poorly maintained and contains explosives and weapons, including several mine types, that are unstable and very hazardous.(5)
Namibia co-sponsored UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. Although it did not participate in the Oslo negotiations, it is expected to sign the treaty in December.
New Zealand(6) (Wellington)
New Zealand first publicly supported an immediate mine ban in December 1995. It renounced the operational use and export of antipersonnel landmines on April 22, 1996. The government states that it has no stocks of antipersonnel landmines. New Zealand was a co-sponsor of UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Papua New Guinea (Port Moresby)
There are still uncleared landmines left over from World War II. Also, guerrillas have placed a limited number of landmines in the countryside, including on Bougainville island. It is unknown whether the military maintains stockpiles of antipersonnel mines. Papua New Guinea voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
St. Kitts and Nevis (Basseterre)
St. Kitts and Nevis has never possessed antipersonnel landmines. St. Kitts voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, and although it did not participate in the Oslo negotiations, it is expected to sign the treaty in December.
St. Lucia has never possessed antipersonnel landmines. It voted "'Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, and although it did not participate in the Oslo negotiations, it is expected to sign the treaty in December.
St. Vincent and The Grenadines (Kingstown)
St. Vincent and the Grenadines has never possessed antipersonnel landmines. It voted "'Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and fully supports the Ottawa process. It endorsed the Brussels Declaration, and although it did not participate in the Oslo negotiations, it is expected to sign the treaty in December.
The Seychelles does not have a landmine problem. The government states that it has no stockpile of antipersonnel landmines. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
South Africa has been one of the most active and important nations in pushing the world toward a ban on antipersonnel mines. On February 20, 1997, South Africa demonstrated bold leadership by announcing, effective immediately, a comprehensive ban on use, production, and trade of antipersonnel mines, as well as its intention to destroy existing stocks, except for "a very limited and verifiable number...solely for training specific military personnel in demining techniques and for research into assisting the demining process."(7)
While South Africa has had a few landmine incidents on its soil, it was in the past the largest producer and exporter of landmines in all of Africa. It used mines in or supplied mines to many other African nations. South Africa's mines have been found in Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe and exported further afield to Cambodia, Rwanda and Somalia.
In 1996 the minister of defense stated that South Africa had 261,423 antipersonnel mines in its stockpile, along with 49,756 antitank mines. A significant number of these mines were destroyed in a "big bang" ceremony in May 1997.
South Africa's ban announcement was preceded by other important steps. In March 1994, South Africa announced a formal moratorium on antipersonnel mine exports. The moratorium was turned into a permanent ban in May 1996, when South Africa also announced that it was suspending all use of antipersonnel mines. South Africa is now emerging as a leader in the field of mine clearance equipment.
South Africa has played a prominent role in the Ottawa process. It hosted an important OAU conference on landmines in Johannesburg in May 1997 and chaired the Oslo diplomatic conference on the ban treaty in September. South Africa endorsed the Brussels Declaration and has stated that it will sign the treaty in December.
Swaziland has a very limited landmine problem. Several Swazi citizens have been killed or maimed by mines along the Mozambique border, including army officers patrolling the border and Ministry of Agriculture officials rehabilitating the fence which controls the spread of foot-and-mouth disease.
At the February 1997 4th International NGO Conference on Landmines, held in Maputo, Mozambique, a Swazi official for the first time called for a ban "with immediate effect." Swaziland voted for UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Tanzania experienced a limited number of landmine incidents in the 1960s, blaming Portuguese forces, which denied laying the mines. Tanzanian forces used mines in Uganda in 1979 and in Mozambique in 1986-88. The Tanzanian military maintains antipersonnel mine stockpiles.(8)
The Tanzanian government in 1996 indicted that it supported a total ban on production, export and operational use of antipersonnel mines in principle. It voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Trinidad and Tobago (Port of Spain)
Trinidad and Tobago does not possess antipersonnel mines. National legislation recommending a irreversible ban has been proposed but has not yet been put into effect. Trinidad voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It did not participate in the Oslo negotiations, but is expected to sign the treaty in December.
The Lord's Resistance Army began planting landmines in 1994 in the north of the country. A limited number of antipersonnel landmines were also used during the Tanzanian-backed invasion to overthrow Idi Amin in 1979 and during the military campaign in 1986 of the National Resistance Army, which resulted in Yoweri Museveni becoming president.
Uganda has produced two types of antipersonnel landmines but in August 1997 announced that it had ceased production. Antipersonnel landmines, a PMD-6 (Box mine type), a plastic mine and grenades were produced at Nakasongola, north of Kampala.(9) The factory was run by the Ugandan army's National Enterprises Corporation (NEC) and had a capacity of producing 50,000 plastic antipersonnel mines per year. Construction of the factory began in 1987 and it was commissioned in 1992, but by 1995 reportedly produced only 10,000 plastic antipersonnel mines. The factory, constructed with assistance from a Chinese company, China Wanbao Engineering Corporation, also produces other weapons. According to NEC's Acting Managing Director, Maj. Fred Mwesigwe, the factories landmine and grenade section is being converted to a dry cell (battery) production line. He said the new project is expected to cost about one million U.S. dollars while on completion the new company expects to earn $1.7 million per year.(10) Mwesigype is quoted as saying the Nakasonggola factory stopped producing antipersonnel landmines around 1995 when the worldwide campaign against their production started. All the mines produced have since been kept in stores and not sold elsewhere.
Uganda voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
United Kingdom(11) (London)
The U.K. itself does not have a landmine problem although there have been reports of a limited number of landmines being used in Northern Ireland. There is a serious problem of uncleared landmines in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, which are administered by the U.K. but claimed by Argentina. Mines were implanted by Argentine forces during the war with the U.K. which ended in 1982. There are 117 identified minefields, with a total of 25-30,000 landmines. Due to the environment, the exact locations of many of these mines are not known. Eighty percent were laid in peat and beach sand, both of which are subject to movement.(12)
The U.K. was a major antipersonnel mine producer and exporter in the past. On July 27, 1994 it adopted a limited moratorium on the export of "dumb" mines. On April 23, 1996 it expanded its export moratorium to include all antipersonnel mines, and declared a suspension of use, except with ministerial authorization. The U.K.'s commitment to a ban intensified greatly with the Labour Party victory and on May 21, 1997 the U.K. permanently banned the production, import and export of antipersonnel mines and committed itself to the destruction of its stockpiles by 2005 (at the latest).
The U.K. co-sponsored UNGA Resolution 51/45S and voted "Yes." It endorsed the Brussels Declaration and participated in the Oslo negotiations. It is expected to sign the treaty in December.
Zambia has minefields along its Angolan border and its Namibian border. Zambians continue to be victims of mines laid over fifteen years ago. Public awareness of the problem is poor. In 1994, Zambian defense ministry spokesperson, Major Jack Mubanga, said, "There are a lot of landmines in Southern and Western provinces, but it is too costly for the government to embark on an exercise to have them removed. It is very expensive to carry out such an assignment."(13)
Zambia continues to maintain a stockpile of antipersonnel mines. Nearly thirty types of antipersonnel mines from ten nations have been found in Zambia. Zambian police are concerned about the weapons trade from Angola into western Zambia, which has included landmines.
Zambia voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
The government of Zimbabwe estimates that there are one to three million mines planted along its borders with Zambia and Mozambique. Zimbabwe inherited the lengthy border minefields from the Rhodesian government, which the Rhodesians boasted constituted the second largest man-made barrier in the world, after the Great Wall of China. Initially the minefields were demarcated on both sides by security fencing with prominent signs. By 1977 the Rhodesians stopped demarcating the minefields on the hostile side and stopped maintaining them. As a result mine laying became uncontrolled and unrecorded and booby trapping flourished. The minefields remain lethal today, claiming new victims. Clearance of the minefields will be dangerous, costly and time consuming.(14)
In March 1995, a senior government official acknowledged that Zimbabwe had produced ZAP PloughShear ("Claymore" type) mines until October 1992, but said a decision had been recently made not to produce any more antipersonnel mines. Zimbabwe Defense Industries (ZDI) has acknowledged manufacturing the PloughShears, while maintaining "a claymore mine is not a landmine." ZDI has stated that the government ordered a stop to production in 1992 and that "as a result ZDI was forced to destroy all claymores in its stocks."(15)
On May 21, 1997 Zimbabwe banned the transfer and use of antipersonnel mines and stated that it would destroy all its stockpile except for a small number for mine clearance training. Zimbabwe voted "Yes" on UNGA Resolution 51/45S and endorsed the Brussels Declaration. It participated in the Oslo negotiations and is expected to sign the treaty in December.
1. Fiji rejoined the Commonwealth on October 1, 1997. Its membership had lapsed on October 15, 1987.
2. Human Rights Watch Arms Project, Still Killing. Landmines in Southern Africa (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1997), pp.60-61.
3. Human Rights Watch, Landmines in Mozambique (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994) and Human Rights Watch Arms Project, Still Killing. Landmines in Southern Africa, 1997, pp.62-102.
4. Human Rights Watch Arms Project, Still Killing. Landmines in Southern Africa, 1997, pp.103-124.
6. Includes the territories of Tokelau and the Ross Dependency (Antarctic). Self-governing countries in association with New Zealand are the Cook Islands and Niue.
7. Human Rights Watch Arms Project, Still Killing. Landmines in Southern Africa,1997, pp.125-137.
8. Human Rights Watch Arms Project, Still Killing. Landmines in Southern Africa, p.140.
9. The New Vision (Kampala), August 21, 1997.
11. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Great Britain comprises England. Scotland and Wales. Its Dependent Territories are: Anguilla, Bermuda, British Antarctic Territory, British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Montserrat, Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, St. Helena and St. Helena Dependencies (Ascension and Tristan da Cunha), South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and Turks and Caicos Islands.
12. U.S. Department of State, Hidden Killers. The Global Problem with Uncleared Landmines, 1993, p.172.
13. The Times of Zambia (Lusaka), June 20, 1994.
14. Human Rights Watch Arms Project, Still Killing. Landmines in Southern Africa, pp.152-176.