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February 10, 2009

Annex: Background Information on Select Sending Countries

Labor Migration from Uzbekistan

An estimated 3 to 5 million of Uzbekistan's 27.2 million citizens work abroad.[322] Eighty percent of Uzbek migrants work in Russia,[323] which has a gross national income per capita almost ten times higher than Uzbekistan;[324] significant numbers of migrant workers also seek employment in neighboring Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.[325] Remittances from migrant workers are a substantial source of household income in Uzbekistan,[326] and constitute 8 to 12 percent of Uzbekistan's gross domestic product (GDP).[327] 

Poverty, unemployment, as well as government interference in the economy serve as push factors for many Uzbeks to seek employment abroad. Uzbekistan has experienced relatively high economic growth in recent years, yet job creation has not kept pace with the rapid growth of the working-age population.[328] Although official unemployment is low (3.8 percent in 2006), unemployment and underemployment taken together are estimated to be around 30 percent.[329]  Unemployment is particularly significant in rural areas, where two-thirds of the population lives.[330] Wages remain low, even for qualified employees.[331] Some 23-25 percent of the population of Uzbekistan lives in poverty.[332]

The state dominates nearly all aspects of political, social, and economic life in Uzbekistan. Extensive state control over the economy restricts economic opportunities and exacerbates poverty and unemployment. According to the World Bank, "the main obstacles to growth in Uzbekistan are policy-related."[333] Privatization has been limited, and private property rights are often overridden by state structures.State interventions into business operations are widespread. In agriculture, the state order which dictates which crops farms must grow and requires farms to surrender a large portion of the harvest of the key crops - cotton and wheat - at below-market prices to the state, remains largely in place.[334]

Labor Migration from Kyrgyzstan

Many factors compel citizens of Kyrgyzstan to migrate in search of employment, among them poverty, unemployment, and lack of political and economic infrastructure. Kyrgyzstan has a population of five million inhabitants; an estimated 615,290, or some one-third of the country's economically active population, work outside of the country,[335] the vast majority going to Russia and Kazakhstan.[336] While actual figures are likely much higher, official statistics suggest there are an estimated 253,000 Kyrgyz labor migrants in Russia,[337] which has a gross national income per capita over seven times higher than Kyrgyzstan.[338] Although current trends show more migration of low-skilled workers, Kyrgyzstan has also suffered from a significant "brain drain," as large numbers of qualified professionals have left for lack of employment opportunities.[339] Women make up 58 percent of international migrant workers from Kyrgyzstan.[340]

Remittances are a vital part of Kyrgyzstan's economy, and were estimated to total US$739 million (27.4 percent of GDP) in 2006.[341] One of the poorest countries of the post-Soviet bloc, Kyrgyzstan's dependence on remittances was felt acutely after the 2008 global economic downturn, resulting in sharp decreases in remittances and increased unemployment.[342]

High unemployment and widespread poverty are significant push factors for workers from Kyrgyzstan to go abroad in search of employment. Thirty-eight percent of households live in poverty. The rural population is disproportionately affected, as is the south of the country.[343] The Kyrgyz government estimated unemployment in 2008 to be at 11 percent,[344] but actual unemployment and underemployment figures are likely to be much higher. Although annual economic growth averaged a respectable 4.4 percent from 2003-2005, due to denationalization and privatization efforts, unemployment remained unchanged, and reform implementation was inadequate causing growth to slow in recent years.[345]

Labor migration is a widely accepted reality in Kyrgyzstan, and labor officials encourage youth to attend training programs at vocational schools for those going to work abroad.[346] Moreover, many Kyrgyz working in Russia seek to Russify their names and seek Russian citizenship to better facilitate their migration to Russia and their ability to find work.[347]

Kyrgyzstan has a poor human rights record. The government of President Kurmanbek Bakiev, who came to power after the March 2005 "Tulip Revolution," largely abandoned a democratic reform agenda in 2007. Over the last several years, pluralism and fundamental freedoms have declined, and there has been an increase in harassment and politically-motivated prosecutions of civil society and opposition activists. Arbitrary suspensions and terminations of asylum-seeker certificates exposed flaws in Kyrgyzstan's refugee protection system.[348]

Labor Migration from Tajikistan

Tajikistan is the poorest country among the former Soviet Socialist Republics, facing additional development and infrastructure challenges to those it shares with its neighbors due to the aftermath of the 1992-1997 civil war. Although growth has averaged 8.7 percent over 2000-2007, [349] the economic situation in the country is dire: 53 percent of the 6.7 million people in Tajikistan live below the poverty line, [350] 17 percent in extreme poverty. [351] While official unemployment is low at 2.4 percent, it is based on only the number of registered benefits recipients [352] and is subsequently a gross underestimate. Unemployment and underemployment are closer to 40 percent. [353]

Among other factors, economic desperation and unemployment have led an estimated 797,000, or 12 percent of the population, to emigrate. [354] Reliance on remittances that migrant workers send from abroad, 98 percent of which come from Russia, [355] is officially 37 percent of GDP. [356] Unofficial estimates are much higher, with some figures at double the official estimates. [357] Russia has a GNI per capita income of over eight times higher than that of Tajikistan, [358] which attracts much of young Tajik labor force for seasonal work. However, the 2008 economic downturn has resulted in a sharp decrease in remittances; several banks through which migrants send money report a 15 to 20 percent decrease in transfers to Tajikistan from October to November 2008. [359]

Seasonal migration from Tajikistan abroad has increased in the last decade, and particularly in the age groups 20-29 and 40-49. [360] Some sources indicate that 58 percent of migrants are women, [361] though the UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women states that though female migration is on the rise, the vast majority of migrants are still men. [362]

Tajikistan is one of the biggest regional exporters of labor, and the phenomenon of labor migration is widely recognized. The International Organization for Migration has organized training programs to address the challenges and vulnerabilities of the migrants, including having irregular status, and other concerns such as HIV/AIDS infection risks. [363] The International Labour Organization, together with the UN Development Programme, is also conducting a project to facilitate safe migration. [364]

Tajikistan has a host of chronic human rights problems, including lack of access to justice, due process violations, and ill-treatment in custody. There is no meaningful political plurality in the country, and the government exercises excessive control over NGOs, religious organizations, political parties, and the media. [365] In March 2008 the International Monetary Fund demanded that Tajikistan give back more than US$47 million in loans, after the Central Bank of Tajikistan intentionally gave false information about the country's financial state. The incident exposed serious flaws in Tajikistan's governance. [366]

Tajikistan suffered a severe energy crisis in the winter of 2008 due to insufficient water for hydroelectric power generation and government mismanagement, which left much of the country without electricity during a particularly cold winter. [367] Tajikistan is also on the United Nations list of 12 countries most adversely affected by the global food crisis. The cost of bread and other food has doubled since August 2007, and many are facing food insecurity and famine for the winter of 2009. [368]

Labor Migration from Ukraine

Of 46 million Ukrainian citizens, [369] some 13 percent of them emigrate every year, often for work. [370] The majority of workers from Ukraine go to Russia; a significant number of migrant workers also seek employment in the United States, Poland, Israel and Kazakhstan. [371] Although the economic disparity between Russia and Ukraine is not nearly as pronounced as that between Russia and other countries in the region, [372] Russia nevertheless in 2007 had a gross national income per capita twice as high as that of Ukraine. [373] Geographic proximity as well as cultural and linguistic ties facilitate labor migration to Russia. Many Ukrainians, particularly in the eastern parts of Ukraine, speak Russian as their first language. Russia and Ukraine also share strong family and social networks. [374]

Although Ukraine has seen some positive developments in its economy in recent years, economic factors remain significant in the motivation of workers to go abroad. From 2002-2007, Ukraine experienced strong but volatile GDP growth, averaging about 7.5 percent, and real wages, pensions, and social benefits have increased. [375] However, a steady increase in inflation, reaching 26 percent in March 2008, has eroded many of these gains. [376] According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) poverty remains a serious problem, with 28 percent of the national population living in poverty, and up to 40 percent in rural areas. [377] Poverty in rural areas is aggravated by a lack of infrastructure, and poor delivery of healthcare and other social services. [378] The World Bank estimates workers' remittances to Ukraine totaled US$ 829 million in 2006, or 0.8 percent of GDP. [379]

While Ukraine has made some important progress in human rights in recent years, its overall human rights record continues to be poor. Power struggles among the political elite have resulted in political instability, poor governance, and stalled reforms. Torture and ill-treatment in detention remains widespread. Employment discrimination against women, hostility to asylum seekers, discrimination against and attacks on ethnic minorities, and human rights abuses fueling Ukraine's staggering HIV/AIDS epidemic are all problems that the Ukrainian government has failed to address effectively . [380]

[322] United States Department of State, Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, "Background Note: Uzbekistan," December 2007; and International Monetary Fund (IMF), "World Economic Outlook Database," October 2008, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/02/weodata/index.aspx (accessed on December 9, 2008).

[323]International Monetary Fund (IMF), "Republic of Uzbekistan: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper," IMF Country Report No. 08/34, January 2008, http://imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr0834.pdf (accessed December 11, 2008).

[324] The World Bank estimates that gross national income in 2007 was US$7,560 for Russia and US$730 for Uzbekistan. Adjusting for purchasing power parity, per capita income in Russia is almost six times greater than in Uzbekistan. World Bank Data and Statistics, "Gross national income per capita 2007, Atlas method and Purchasing Power Parity," http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf (accessed December 9, 2008).

[325] IOM, "Facts and Figures: Uzbekistan," http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/pid/510 (accessed December 11, 2008).

[326]According to one IMF survey, up to 27 percent of families had at least one family member who had left Uzbekistan to earn money. In such families, the average income of a labor migrant 5 to 10 times higher than other sources of household earnings. IMF, "Republic of Uzbekistan: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper."

[327]World Bank, "Country Brief: Uzbekistan," October 2008, http://www.worldbank.org.uz/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/UZBEKISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20152186~menuPK:294195~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:294188,00.html (accessed December 9, 2008).

[328]Economic growth accelerated from around 4 percent in 1996-2003 to over 7 percent in 2004-06 and to 9.5 percent in 2007. World Bank, "Country Brief: Uzbekistan," October 2008; and IMF, "Republic of Uzbekistan: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper," January 2008.

[329]IMF surveys confirm that employment does not protect households from poverty and being employed in agriculture is also associated with poverty. Ibid.

[330]World Bank, "Country Brief: Uzbekistan," October 2008.

[331]U.S. Department of State, Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, "Background Note: Uzbekistan," December 2007.

[332]IMF, "Republic of Uzbekistan: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper," January 2008; and World Bank, "Country Brief: Uzbekistan," October 2008. Eighteen percent of the population lives on less than US$1 per day. United Nations Children's Fund, "UNICEF in Uzbekistan," http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/backgrounder.Uzbekistan.UNICEF.doc (accessed December 9, 2008). The United Nations Human Development Index, which attempts to measure a broad definition of well-being, ranks Uzbekistan 113th out of 177 countries in the world. Kyrgyzstan ranks 116th, Tajikistan ranks 122nd, and Russia ranks 67th. United Nations Development Programme, "The Human Development Index 2007-08: Uzbekistan." http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_UZB.html (accessed December 9, 2008).  

[333]World Bank, "Country Brief: Uzbekistan," October 2008.

[334]Ibid.

[335] World Bank, "Migration and Remittances Factbook 2008: Kyrgyz Republic,"

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-1199807908806/KyrgyzRepublic.pdf, (accessed December 17, 2007); and Anar Musabaeva "Unemployment of Youth in Kyrgyzstan: Particularities of the Problem and Possible Solutions," Institute for Public Policy, http://ipp.kg/en/analysis/301/, (accessed December 17, 2008).

[336] International Monetary Fund (IMF), "Kyrgyz Republic: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper-Country Development Strategy (2007–2010)," IMF Country Report No. 07/193, June 2007, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2007/cr07193.pdf, (accessed December 17, 2008).

[337] "There are 253,000 labor migrants in Russia from Kyrgyzstan," News Agency 24.kg, February 1, 2008 http://www.24.kg/community/2008/02/01/75507.html (accessed December 17, 2008).

[338] World Bank Data and Statistics, "Gross national income per capita 2007, Atlas method and Purchasing Power Parity," http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf (accessed December 17, 2008).

[339] IOM, "Facts and Figures: Kyrgyzstan," http://iom.int/jahia/Jahia/pid/507 (accessed December 17, 2008).

[340] Ibid.

[341]World Bank, "Migration and Remittances Factbook 2008."The actual flow of remittances is most likely higher as World Bank statistics do not include remittances sent through informal channels.

[342]Deidre Tynan, "Central Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan Confront a Financial Disaster," Eurasianet.org, November 10, 2008, http://eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav111008_pr.shtml (accessed December 15, 2008).

[343] World Bank, "Kyrgyz Republic: Poverty Update: Profile of Living Standards in 2003," Report no. 36602, August 30, 2005, p. 54, Annexes 3, 27, http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/06/28/000112742_20060628154321/Rendered/PDF/366020KG0P08841erty0Update01PUBLIC1.pdf (accessed December 17, 2008).

[344] "Unemployment hits 11% in Kyrgyzstan," News Agency 24.kg, March 25, 2008, http://eng.24.kg/business/2008/03/25/4947.html (accessed December 17, 2008).

[345] IMF, "Kyrgyz Republic: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper," June 2007.

[346] Asyl Osmonalieva, "Kyrgyzstan Schools Young People for Export," Institute for War and Peace Reporting, February 21, 2008, http://iwpr.net/?p=rca&s=f&o=342849&apc_state=henprca (accessed December 17, 2008).

[347] "More and more Kyrgyz Want to Become Russian Citizens," Rosbalt.ru, March 26, 2008, http://www.rosbalt.ru/2008/03/26/468545.html (accessed December 17, 2008); and "Citizens of Kyrgyzstan are Changing Their Names Back to Soviet Forms en Masse," News Agency 24.kg, January 25, 2008 http://eng.24/business/2008/02/19/77151.html (accessed December 17, 2008).

[348]Human Rights Watch, World Report 2009, January 14, 2009, http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2009/01/14/world-report-2009.

[349] World Bank, "Country Brief: Tajikistan," October 2008, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/TAJIKISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20630697~menuPK:287255~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:258744,00.html (accessed December 19, 2008).

[350] Ibid.

[351] European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), "Strategy for Tajikistan," pp. 21, Section 2.1.5, http://www.ebrd.com/about/strategy/country/taji/strategyd.pdf  (accessed December 19, 2008).

[352] United States Department of State, "Background Note: Tajikistan," October 2008, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5775.htm (accessed December 19, 2008).

[353] Ibid.

[354]World Bank, "Migration and Remittances Factbook 2008: Tajikistan," http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-1199807908806/Tajikistan.pdf (accessed December 17, 2007).

[355] Deidre Tynan, "Central Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan Confront a Financial Disaster," Eurasianet.org, November 10, 2008, http://eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav111008_pr.shtml (accessed December 15, 2008).

[356] World Bank, "Country Brief: Tajikistan," October 2008, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/TAJIKISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20630697~menuPK:287255~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:258744,00.html (accessed December 19, 2008).

[357] Deidre Tynan, "Central Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan Confront a Financial Disaster."

[358] World Bank Data and Statistics, "Gross national income per capita 2007, Atlas method and Purchasing Power Parity," http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf (accessed December 17, 2008).

[359] "Tajik Remittances Down Due to Global Financial Crisis – Agency," Asia-Plus News Agency, December 11, 2008.

[360] IOM, "Facts and Figures: Tajikistan," http://iom.int/jahia/Jahia/pid/508 (accessed December 19, 2008).

[361] Ibid.

[362] Human Rights Council 7th session (March 2008), "Report of the Special Rapporteur on Indicators on Violence against Women and State response," (A/HRC/7/6), http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/women/rapporteur/index.htm (accessed December 19, 2008).

[363] "The International Organization for Migration Finishes its Development of their Course on Migration and HIV," Asia Plus News Agency, February 21, 2008, http://asiaplus.tj/news/39/28318.html (accessed December 19, 2008).

[364] The International Labour Organization, "Migrants in times of economic crisis: ILO/UNDP join forces to make Tajik migration safe," December 16, 2008, http://www.ilo.org/global/About_the_ILO/Media_and_public_information/Feature_stories/lang--en/WCMS_101069/index.htm (accessed December 19, 2008).

[365] Human Rights Watch, World Report 2009, January 14, 2009, http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2009/01/14/world-report-2009.

[366] Ibid.

[367] World Bank, "Country Brief: Tajikistan," October 2008, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/TAJIKISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20630697~menuPK:287255~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:258744,00.html (accessed December 19, 2008); and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, "Strategy for Tajikistan," pp. 41, Annex 1, http://www.ebrd.com/about/strategy/country/taji/strategyd.pdf  (accessed December 19, 2008).

[368] Deidre Tynan, "Central Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan Confront a Financial Disaster," Eurasianet.org, November 10, 2008, http://eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav111008_pr.shtml (accessed December 15, 2008).

[369] World Bank, "Overview: Ukraine, Key Facts," October 2008, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/UKRAINEEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20631767~menuPK:328541~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:328533,00.html (accessed December 18, 2008).

[370] World Bank, "Migration and Remittances Factbook 2008: Ukraine," http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-1199807908806/Ukraine.pdf (accessed January 6, 2009).

[371] Ibid. 

[372] See World Bank Data and Statistics, "Gross national income per capita 2007, Atlas method and Purchasing Power Parity," http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf (accessed December 17, 2008).

[373] Ibid.

[374]According to one analyst, forty percent of Russian families are said to have relatives in Ukraine or to have come to Russia from Ukraine. Volodymyr Senchenko, "The New Wave of Labor Migration," Ukraine Observer, http://www.ukraine-observer.com/articles/233/1067 (accessed December 22, 2008).

[375] International Monetary Fund (IMF), "Ukraine: Selected Issues," July 2008, IMF Country Report No. 08/228, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08228.pdf (accessed January 6, 2009); and United Nations Development Program, Welcoming Remarks by Francis M. O'Donnell, UNDP Resident Representative and UN Resident Coordinator, International Conference on Poverty Alleviation, April 16, 2008,Kyiv, http://www.un.org.ua/files/rcs-rr-poverty_conference_statement_16_apr_2008.pdf (accessed January 8, 2008).

[376] IMF, "Ukraine: Selected Issues," July 2008.

[377] According to official statistics, poverty is defined as living on less than 430 Ukrainian hryvna (US$90) per person per month. United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Ukraine, "Global price shocks threaten to increase poverty in Ukraine," Press Release, April 16, 2008, http://www.undp.org.ua/en/media/1-undp-news/460 (accessed January 8, 2009); and UNDP, "Welcoming Remarks by Francis M. O'Donnell, UNDP Resident Representative and UN Resident Coordinator, International Conference on Poverty Alleviation," April 16, 2008,Kyiv.

[378]UNDP, "Global price shocks threaten to increase poverty in Ukraine." 

[379] World Bank, "Migration and Remittances Factbook 2008: Ukraine." 

[380] Human Rights Watch, World Report 2009, January 14, 2009, http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2009/01/14/world-report-2009.